Broad agreement between the experimental stress field and that obtained from quasistatic simulations is demonstrated. Bubble shapes are used to deduce the normal and shear stresses across the foam flow field. A detailed foam rheometry study is performed using foam flowing through a constriction. They may be reproduced by a simple particle–oil mixture of a saturated and an unsaturated triglyceride (e.g. Oily soil antifoam effects are however insensitive to the presence of calcium, being equally effective regardless of pH and calcium content. An experimental study of the physical chemistry of foam generation indicates that precipitation of a typical anionic surfactant with calcium forms mesophase particles and causes a marked reduction in the rate of transport of surfactant to air–water surfaces and a concomitant reduction in foaming. A programme of research is outlined which considers the foaming performance and foam behaviour of surfactant systems commonly encountered in hand-wash laundry detergent applications.
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